A journey to the heart of Japan
One of the most vivid descriptions of travel in 17th century Japan is provided by the Dutchman, Engelbert Kaempfer. He was a doctor attached to the Dutch East India Company, based at the island of Dejima in Nagasaki. He made the long journey to Edo twice, in 1691 and 1692, as part of the alternate… [Read more]
In the early 1870s, a French military observer, Leon Descharmes, noted that with the invention of the rickshaw it was possible to travel the eighty miles from Takasaki to Tokyo in a single day on the existing roads. He went on to say that: although the route may appear good at a dry season of… [Read more]
In a recent campaign organized by the local town office the people of Narai and surrounding villages were asked to dig out all their old photographs. The collection that was brought together provides a most graphic account of the changes that have taken place here during the last hundred years. The hills surrounding the village… [Read more]
Textbooks: Edwin O. Reischauer, John K. Fairbank and Albert M. Craig, East Asia: Tradition and Transformation The Cambridge History of Japan (6 volumes) Peter Duus, The Rise of Modern Japan Kenneth Pyle, The Making of Modern Japan W.G. Beasley, The Modern History of Japan George Sansom, A History of Japan (3 volumes) George Sansom, Japan:… [Read more]
Although local government in Japan centers on the 47 directly elected prefectural assemblies, the day to day affairs of public administration are performed at a lower level of local government – the municipality. Each prefecture is divided into about 60 municipalities, with a total of just over 3,200 in the country as a whole. Each… [Read more]
Compared to other developed nations Japan has a relatively small amount of land available for agriculture. In fact, only 16 percent of the land surface is suitable for cultivation, yet a comparatively high proportion of the workforce is engaged in farming. As a result, Japan has one of the highest densities of farmers per acre… [Read more]
In contrast to many larger castle towns such as Hikone or Takasaki relatively little survives in Annaka today to suggest that this place was also the castle town of a daimyo in the Edo period. In part this is due to the small size of Annaka. By the time of the Meiji Restoration in 1868… [Read more]
Article 9 is a section in the new 1946 Japanese constitution which amended completely the old Meiji constitution. One of the objectives of the Allied Occupation was to demilitarize Japan so that it could never again go to war. After the demobilization of the Japanese military, Article 9 was added to the constitution with the… [Read more]
Bansho were the guard stations from which officials could keep an eye on the road and monitor traffic. They tend to be found in the larger post-towns, usually located near the masugata where all traffic was forced to slow. They housed samurai `policemen’ who insured that local regulations were enforced. They not only oversaw the… [Read more]
While many post-towns had bansho which were required to keep watch over the highway, there were barriers (seki or sekisho, barrier station) at intervals which had special duty to inspect each passing traveler and porter. The primary purpose of a seki was to prevent the movement of two dangerous commodities. One was the smuggling out… [Read more]
Baseball is an imported sport, but it records the highest level of popularity, earning the game the title of national sport along with sumo. Baseball is played at all competitive levels with great enthusiasm among players and spectators. Baseball came to Japan first in 1873, just five years after the Tokugawa shogunate was overthrown. At… [Read more]
Scattered along the Nakasendo, at Shinchaya, Shimo-suwa, and Karuizawa, are rocks on which are inscribed poems. Composed by Basho, the poems evoke the local landscape at a particular time of year and are much appreciated by local residents who have erected the stone memorials to the poet. Basho was a master poet who developed poetry,… [Read more]
Bathing seldom appears as a major topic in books about Japan of a ‘serious’ nature. Historians and geographers alike usually look at more ‘significant’ topics although they will gladly extol the pleasures of a hot bath if you ask them face to face. The bath, or ofuro, however, is hardly insignificant. Not only does it… [Read more]
Anyone who visits Japan, especially during the year end celebrations in December and January, will realize that the level of alcohol consumption in Japan is fairly high. The number of happily drunk men, and recently an increasing number of women, on public transport is unmistakable. At many festivals, especially cherry blossom viewing, picnics, and outings,… [Read more]
For miles around the gentle slopes to the west of Karuizawa there are besso (‘country villas’ or ‘second homes’) scattered on sizable, secluded plots of land. Rustic, often Western style homes for vacation use in the summer or on the weekend are all over the place. Similar vacation areas with besso can be found in… [Read more]
Buddhism entered Japan after the Indian offshoot from Hinduism was transformed in China. Together with Shinto, it is the religion which most Japanese profess to and has been a major religious and cultural influence on Japan. Buddhism entered Japan in the great wave of Chinese cultural influence in the 6th century. Specifically, Buddhism is said… [Read more]
At the time of the Meiji Restoration, in 1868, some 250 castle towns (jokamachi) formed the core of a well developed urban network in Japan. Although constructed primarily as defended residences for provincial lords (daimyo) and their retainers, castle towns necessarily became local administrative headquarters through which political authority was channeled from the shogun’s citadel… [Read more]
Contact between Japan and China goes back to around 200AD, according to the Chinese histories, and the influence of China on Japan is as deep as it is long. Whether you look at language, culture, political institutions, or the Nakasendo itself, Chinese influence is readily apparent. At the same time, Japan has always remained different,… [Read more]
Christianity came to Japan in two waves: in the 16th century and again in the 19th and 20th centuries. In both periods, it achieved some influence and made a moderate number of converts, but it has always remained Japan’s least important religion compared to Shinto and Buddhism. The Jesuits traveled with Portuguese and Spanish explorers… [Read more]
Japan is known as a land of earthquakes and volcanoes but, except for rare catastrophic events such as the 1923 Great Kanto Earthquake, the greatest danger from nature is normally associated with Japan’s climate. Heavy rain is the most persistent cause of death through natural disaster, regularly accounting for the lives of between 30 and… [Read more]
Conditions which were extremely favorable to commerce began to appear, ironically, during the Warring States period. As sengoku daimyo unified and enlarged their domains, they found that although they perhaps wanted the independence which mercantilist policies promised, they could not remain aloof from a national economic system. In fact, many of the policies they pursued… [Read more]
In the Edo period, craftsmen were recognized as one of the four social classes in Confucian philosophy. The products from their hands were regarded as useful creations which were valued by the other classes. In contrast, the work of the merchant class was viewed as parasitic because nothing useful was produced. Daimyo competed to attract… [Read more]
Daruma are doll-like representations of the Indian priest Bodhidharma who founded the school of Buddhist meditation which became Chan Buddhism in China or Zen Buddhism in Japan. Bodhidharma, or Daruma, is popularly believed to have spent so much time in meditation that his legs atrophied. Hence, the daruma dolls have no representations of legs; they… [Read more]
The origins of department stores go back to 1673 when the Mitsui family established a dry-goods store in Edo, at the terminus of the Nakasendo. The shop was eventually renamed Mitsukoshi in 1928 and was the basis for the commercial success of the family; Mitsui became an extended corporation before World War II and has… [Read more]
The concept that the emperors and empresses of Japan are descended from gods was enshrined in the Shinto religion, in Japan’s earliest histories, and in the 1889 Meiji Constitution. Article 3 of this constitution stated in its entirety ‘The Emperor is sacred and inviolable’. In Japan’s earliest histories, however, the story is told at greater… [Read more]
Dosojin are guardian deities who are closely associated with roads, travelers and local boundaries. They were assigned the task of keeping evil away from the Nakasendo and its travelers. Dosojin come in many forms, but are generally small, carved stones in a human shape. Often, they come in pairs of figures, but sometimes they are… [Read more]
Properly speaking, there have been no dynastic struggles in Japan; only one dynasty has ruled Japan and it continues. That simplistic statement, however, covers up a lot of exceptions to the rule. To begin with, Japanese emperors and empresses (there have been ten empresses with the last reigning from 1762-1771) have seldom exercised much power…. [Read more]
As Chizuru indicates, education is critically important in Japan today, but even in Torazaemon’s time, many people required the benefits of education. In truth, the importance and value attached to education in the Edo period provided a basis and a positive orientation to education which offered the modernizers of the nineteenth century a good base… [Read more]
Politics changed sharply at the end of the Edo period (1603-1868): the period came to an end. But the fact that the period came to an end, after 250 years of stability and continuity raises the question Why? Historians approach the question from two directions. One is perhaps more obvious: Westerners came and their coming… [Read more]
In the 17th century, the Edo shogunate authorities placed strong emphasis on revitalizing the highway system to ensure that orders and messages could be relayed quickly, efficiently, and safely between Edo and the provinces. This was essential for effective government. Among the many different types of travelers regularly seen along the ‘Five Roads’ were runners,… [Read more]
The following entries provide information specifically about the Nakasendo highway, especially as it was in the Edo period at its height of development. Bansho Barrier Stations Five Roads Express Post 17th Century Travel A Century of Change in the Kiso Valley The Warring States Period Tateba Tea Houses Toge — Mountain passes Highways Joyato —… [Read more]
Festivals in Japan are many and varied, and in recent years, they have become popular again after experiencing disapproval and obscurity in the decades immediately after 1945. Many festivals are connected with the Shinto religion or have roots in the feudal periods, such as Boys’ Day. Because the values or attitudes embedded in them have… [Read more]
Fire was a constant worry before the advent of new building materials and remains a major concern today. The traditional building was mainly constructed of flammable materials. The basic structure was of wood with the walls woven of bamboo or other material and covered with mud and plaster. Floors were wooden or wood covered over… [Read more]
It seems ironic that while successful rice cultivation depends on the controlled flooding of rice fields in early summer, the fear of floods brought about by natural causes is one of the greatest that rice farmers have to face. Inundation of the fields at the wrong time of year, particularly just before harvest, can be… [Read more]
The traditional meal centers on rice to such an extent that the word gohan means both rice and a meal. Rice was the main dish and was eaten in great quantities with side dishes of vegetables, meats, and soy bean-products supplementing the main course. In modern times, however, rice has declined in importance as prosperity… [Read more]
Given the size of the country and its geography, trains are the best form of transport between most points: only a traveler moving between the extreme ends of the country would save time taking a plane instead of a train. The Shinkansen lines which are still being built are based on technology which is fundamentally… [Read more]
Very few types of gambling are legal in Japan except for betting on horse-racing, motorboat racing and so on. Pachinko is the one of the few games which is legal although pinball games abound especially at festivals. Card games such as poker are not legal if played for money. Mahjong is commonly played, often for… [Read more]
Itabashi is typical of many gentrified post-towns: few of the old buildings of the post-town remain, but the route of the old highway is still easy to spot running as a narrow back street while the modern highway by-passes the town at a respectful distance. It is not uncommon for areas within urban districts which… [Read more]
Golf may not be mentioned with sumo wrestling and baseball as a national pastime, but it certainly ranks high on the list for a sports enthusiast in Japan. The number of golf courses, practice ranges, and practice nets in backyards would surprise even the inventors of the game, the Scots. Walk along any commuter train… [Read more]
Haikai poems developed out of a tradition of renga or linked verse. Haikai was typically a short verse of three lines made up of 5, 7, and 5 syllables. A second verse would have two lines of 7 and 7 syllables. The third verse would repeat the form of the first and the fourth would… [Read more]
Until the 1960s, it was very rare to find a building above six or eight stories anywhere in Japan. The country was so plagued by earthquakes that construction technology and the law prohibited tall buildings. In the terrible earthquake of 1923 which killed over 100,000 people in the Tokyo Yokohama area, the only real skyscraper… [Read more]
Hiroshige is the given name of Ando Hiroshige (1797-1858) who was a woodblock print artist and illustrator best known for his landscapes. His work was influenced by brush painting and ukiyoe (pictures of the ‘floating world’) which depicted the joys, sorrows and beauties of the entertainment districts. Hiroshige’s father was a fireman of samurai status… [Read more]
The largest building in each post-town was the honjin. Usually located in the center of the town, the honjin was the designated inn for daimyo and other travelers of high rank to stop for a rest or to stay overnight. Set in a walled enclosure with entrance through an elaborate gateway, the honjin comprised gardens,… [Read more]
Springs (onsen) have been valued for centuries as places to bathe; nothing is better for relaxation and there are medicinal benefits as well. Hot springs may also be used as an energy source: to produce electricity, heat the public bath, defrost the public roads, and even heat greenhouses where vegetables are grown. Most people, however,… [Read more]
Every Buddhist temple and Shinto shrine offers a variety of prayer tablets, amulets and talismans to worshippers for protection in a wide variety of endeavors ranging from traffic safety to success in examinations to success in business. While some of these are purchased to put in a specific place (to attach to a briefcase or… [Read more]
In Japan, the first hydro-electric power was produced in 1890. After 1912, hydro-electric plants supplied more than 50% of Japan’s electricity. Only after World War II did the balance between power from thermal plants and power from hydro-electric plants tip in favor of thermal plants. This was when thermal plant efficiency was quickly increasing and… [Read more]
Ichinomiya means the first or most important shrine and refers to the main Shinto shrine in a province (the provincial system has been replaced by the present prefectural system). These shrines continue, in most cases, to be among the main Shinto shrines. The granting of special status to important shrines dates back to the 8th… [Read more]
One of the aids for both travelers and the people who worked on the highways in the early Edo period were regular distance markers, similar to the notion of ‘mile posts’ seen on Western roads. Rather than a simple post or stone pillar, however, Japanese highways were typically marked by large earthen mounds known as… [Read more]
The first lord of Hikone, Ii Naomasa, had been one of Tokugawa Ieyasu’s most loyal and trusted generals. As a reward for his services the Ii family were entrusted with a hereditary position of high status and authority as fudai daimyo in the Tokugawa shogunate. The Ii daimyo, otherwise known by their honorific title of… [Read more]
There are many foreign workers in Japan although it is difficult to say how many because large numbers are present illegally. Estimates of illegal immigrant workers ranged from 100,000 to 400,000 in 1994, but since the immigration authorities do not seek to check into the problem too thoroughly, any number is a mere estimate. This… [Read more]
The Ise Shrines are a Shinto establishment dedicated to the goddess Amaterasu Omikami who is the mythological ancestor of the imperial family. Ise Shrine was originally reserved for worship only by the imperial family and their priests. With the sharp decline in the power of the imperial court after the start of the Warring States… [Read more]
Ishidatami or ‘paving stones’ were laid down on rough patches of road, particularly over the mountain passes which were steep at the top and prone to erosion in the rainy season. Stones were laid carefully so that porters and carriers would have sure footing when they most needed it. Other than this, no attempt was… [Read more]
Japanese gardens hold a well-deserved reputation throughout the world. The most famous ones are located mainly in Kyoto, but gardens of national repute are scattered throughout the islands. In addition to serious gardening at this level, most homes and inns have modest gardens which, although much smaller, require equal attention. Gardens may be large and… [Read more]
At nightfall, with no street lights along the way, traveling became difficult, if not hazardous. In order to assist travelers, stone lanterns were erected at each end of the post-towns to act as guiding beacons. They were lit at dusk and would remain burning until dawn – hence the name joyato or ‘all-night lights’. Similar… [Read more]
Karuizawa might have shrunk into quiet decay like many old post-towns, including neighboring Oiwake, but instead it has developed into a summer resort area. Its population of about 20,000 can be swamped by the tens of thousands of visitors up from Tokyo for a week or a day. Karuizawa was “discovered” by foreign missionaries around… [Read more]
The Kiso forest is famous for the quality of its lumber. During the Edo period, the ruling samurai class put so much value on the wood that common people were prohibited from cutting the five trees of the Kiso river valley. Shimazaki Toson’s novel Before the Dawn relates in the first few pages the case… [Read more]
The Nakasendo highway from Kyoto to Edo (present day Tokyo) passed through 67 post-towns. Of these post-towns, eleven are in the Kiso River Valley where the highway was called the Kisoji (or Kisoro). This area of the Nakasendo highway could be thought of as the heart of the highway today because the road and the… [Read more]
Although China was the center of civilization in East Asia and a major influence on Japan, much of that influence came to Japan through Korea rather than directly from China. If Chinese influence was responsible for major changes in Japan – the import of Buddhism, writing, Confucianism, and technology – then Korea was the active… [Read more]
The edicts and regulations from the shogunate authorities were announced to townspeople and villagers by posting them on an official notice board known as the kosatsuba. The regulations were first painted on a wooden board, which was then nailed to the kosatsuba. Such notice boards were located in every town and village, in a prominent… [Read more]
Kyoto holds a unique position in Japan as the ancient, imperial capital and the cultural center of the nation. It was because of these reasons that the Japan specialists who advised the American military authorities during World War II counseled against bombing the city, although it had been targeted at one time as a site… [Read more]
Eleven miles in circumference, but only 25 feet deep at the most, the proximity of Lake Suwa to surrounding hot springs, and the fine view across the Lake to Mount Fuji make it a popular tourist destination. The fame of the lake is due to the fact that it ices over every year from December… [Read more]
The mountains in Japan are very steep and the rocks unstable due to weathering. Landslides are common whenever there are heavy rains. Many rural villages have established themselves along the edges of sharply defined valleys. They frequently are placed below steep hills, on land which could serve no agricultural use in order to maximize the… [Read more]
Living conditions in Japan are a study in contrasts, but not in the way you can find extreme poverty and extreme wealth in the United States. Income distribution is far more even, but the actual living conditions, in comparison to foreign countries, are a different matter because of the cost of commodities such as land… [Read more]
At the time of the Meiji Restoration, in 1868, some 250 castle towns (jokamachi) formed the core of a well developed urban network in Japan. Although constructed primarily as defended residences for provincial lords (daimyo) and their retainers, castle towns necessarily became local administrative headquarters through which political authority was channeled from the shogun’s citadel… [Read more]
Major disasters such as those caused by earthquakes, typhoons, floods, fires, volcanic eruptions or tidal waves (tsunami) are a preoccupation throughout Japanese history. They have left the Japanese with a profound sense that impermanence is the only permanent feature of life. The list of disasters which has struck Japan is longer than need be related…. [Read more]
Manga (cartoons and comics) are one of the most striking aspects of Japanese life today. Whether reading the newspaper, looking at advertisements or watching television, manga seem to be everywhere. One only has to ride the commuter trains and see primary school children, university students and middle-aged businessmen pouring over 450-page volumes of ‘Boy’s Champion’… [Read more]
Since 1960, market gardening has been encouraged by the government as an alternative to rice cultivation which has long been seen as subject to low economic returns and to high price fluctuations due to over or under-production. Official policy encourages farmers to switch to money crops like vegetables and fruits. These often provide higher yields… [Read more]
Getting married in any society is not an easy business and in Japan, even though the idea of ‘love matches’ has come into vogue, marriage carries many social overtones. It is the joining of two families of equal or nearly equal social status as much as the joining of two individuals. As such, the interests… [Read more]
In Chinese tradition, evil spirits can only travel in straight lines. The approaches to villages or even individual houses, therefore, often require visitors to make a 90 degree turn before entering, so that no evil spirits may be brought in. In Japanese post-towns (and castle towns) this feature has also been adopted, although the reason… [Read more]
Miyamoto Musashi (1584-1645) was the most famous swordsman, teacher of the Way of the Sword, and ronin (masterless samurai) of the early Edo period. His story has been enshrined in popular legend, novel and movie; the movie is repeated on television each New Years in either its 7 or 15-hour version. Musashi was like many… [Read more]
Nightlife today is varied and intense. Both large and small cities have areas of concentrated nightlife: rows of pubs, bars, cabarets, restaurants, coffee shops, discotheques, ‘love’ hotels, games parlors, pachinko joints or tall buildings with the rows of advertisements running vertically up the facades instead of horizontally. Areas of Tokyo like Kabukicho in Shinjuku are… [Read more]
Despite the impression widely held outside Japan that the country has a society based firmly on consensus and harmony, modern protest has a rich history. Some of the reason for this may lie with the Allied Occupation which sought to instill individualism and individual right among the population while strengthening organizations which could resist authoritarian… [Read more]
Originally, “mon” or family crests were used in Japan in much the same way that nobles in Europe used heraldic devices. Imperial court families have been recorded using “mon” in the 8th century, but the practice was not very widespread or rigorous. With the rise of the samurai class, there was a greater need for… [Read more]
Mt. Fuji or Fujisan (not Fujiyama which is a misreading of the final character that means mountain) has become a well-known symbol of Japan to foreigners and a point of natural beauty of great pride to the Japanese. Wood block-print artists like Hiroshige did much to popularize the mountain through their works and in the… [Read more]
Mount Ontake is an active volcano which erupted, for the first time in recorded history, in 1979. Dominating the Kiso Valley, it is better known, perhaps, as the domain of magical mountain spirits. Also called Mitake and Otake, Mount Ontake is sometimes called Kiso Ontake in order to distinguish it from a number of other… [Read more]
Mt. Asama is situated at the junction of two volcanic fronts in Japan and is therefore one of the more active of the ‘active volcanoes’. Although puffing smoke constantly, the last major eruption was on August 5, 1783, but 50 other ventings have been recorded. It now stands 8,338 feet high, but like Mt. St…. [Read more]
The idea of planting trees along the roadside to provide shade for travelers had occurred to the Chinese when they developed their highway system more than 2000 years ago. Almost certainly the idea was copied by the Japanese, along with all other features of Chinese highways, when they laid out their own highway system at… [Read more]
Niegawa Barrier Station is one of two seki which have been reconstructed along the Nakasendo in recent times, the other being at Kiso-Fukushima. Its origins go back to the Warring States period when local warrior lords erected many of these structures at regular intervals along the highways. Their purpose was to check on the movement… [Read more]
In the 17th century Kaempfer wrote, ‘There is hardly a public Inn upon the great Island Nipon, but what may be called a bawdy-house’. He describes as many as six or seven ‘wenches’ at each inn sitting near the door attracting the custom of travelers. Although officially called serving maids (meshi-mori onna), it is quite… [Read more]
Nihonbashi, which means ‘Bridge of Japan’, is less impressive than one would imagine. As the point from which all highway distances are measured, it seems that it should stand out in the urban landscape. Instead, it has a dirty, stagnant canal under it and a rumbling elevated expressway above, adding dark shadow to a peculiar bouquet, especially in summer…. [Read more]
Oiwake means, literally, a ‘parting of the way’ or road junction. Post-towns were often situated at these junctions and because of the larger volume of traffic through them, they tended to be larger than other towns. Examples are Oiwake (which together with some other villages takes its name from the junction), Shimo-suwa, Kusatsu (at the… [Read more]
Tracing the path of a bygone highway across Japan, it seems easy to distinguish between the ‘old’ and the ‘modern’ routes. Along the Nakasendo, for example, there are many places where the old and new highways overlap for a while before the two routes diverge. Often this occurs on the approach to an Edo period… [Read more]
Although the centers of commercial activities were located in the towns and large cities which grew up in the Edo period, the old province of Omi, the area south and east of Lake Biwa, played a large role. The Omi merchants became famous throughout Japan, and very rich too, through their base in jute and other… [Read more]
Omote (the public face) and ura (the private face) are twin concepts that are applied to almost any aspect of Japan or life in Japan. Omote refers to the image which an individual, a company, or any institution wishes to present to outsiders or the public in general. As with any image, omote is composed… [Read more]
Omote (the public face) and ura (the private face) are twin concepts that are applied to almost any aspect of Japan or life in Japan. Omote refers to the image which an individual, a company, or any institution wishes to present to outsiders or the public in general. As with any image, omote is composed… [Read more]
Pachinko is a game which can be found throughout Japan. It is a noisy, garish, glittery form of gambling which never seems to loose its popularity. Pachinko is like a pinball game. The object is to get a metal ball into one of the many holes on an upright playing board. The board is studded… [Read more]
There is a long tradition of rebellion by peasants in premodern times. Revolts sometimes occurred because of starvation as a result of crop failure. At other times, peasants revolted as a limited protest against the government of the time. Their intention was not to overthrow the government, but to gain something specific, like relief from… [Read more]
One of the most important areas of constitutional law that was changed in the 1946 constitution was civil liberties and rights. The old Meiji constitution placed significant limitations on all the basic rights which many countries have come to accept: freedom of speech was guaranteed subject to the limitations of laws which could be changed;… [Read more]
The idea of making a pilgrimage to visit religious places is present in nearly every culture and religion. In Japan, it is typical of both major religions, Buddhism and Shinto from early times, but it was an idea which grew in popularity in the Edo period (1603-1868). To make a pilgrimage is, usually, to travel…. [Read more]
A political campaign in Japan is very carefully limited by laws as well as by tradition. Legally, some forms of campaigns common in other countries are prohibited: door-to-door soliciting for votes is illegal, for example. Others forms that are prohibited are more familiar: gifts may not be given to voters (they might constitute bribes) and… [Read more]
Before 1945 Between 1913 and 1941, Japan evolved a two-party parliamentary system. but since other minor parties were able to survive the system is properly called a multi-party system. The history of parties goes back to the 1870s when government leaders from the former Tosa domain, disagreeing with their share of power, left the government… [Read more]
Pollution is endemic in the modern world unless strenuous efforts to prevent it are undertaken. Large numbers of people and industries concentrated in small areas and consuming large quantities of resources are major sources of pollution. Japan certainly fits this description. Immediately after World War II, the primary goal of the government and industry was… [Read more]
Porters and carriers were the primary means by which goods, travelers and their baggage moved along Japanese highways. When the first ‘official’ highways were established in Japan, probably in the 7th century AD, one of their most important functions was to facilitate the smooth passage of the rice tax due to the emperor each year…. [Read more]
Records show that many of the 67 post-towns on the Nakasendo were established long before the highway was officially laid out in 1602. Some had even been designated as post-towns on earlier roads. For his new system of highways, however, Tokugawa Ieyasu demanded that designated post-towns be established at frequent, regular intervals, and that each… [Read more]
One of the most difficult tasks facing the new Meiji government in the late 19th century was to redefine the old feudal system of government into a modern democratic and more manageable system. The original 261 feudal domains of vastly varying sizes were initially made prefectures under the rule of the former daimyo, but soon… [Read more]
The Japanese government correctly perceived at an early date that a good railway system would be beneficial to the economy. The first small railway ran from Tokyo to Yokohama in 1872, but gradually the system was extended until it connected Nagoya, Kyoto, Osaka, and Kobe, the main cities of the center of Japan. Soon freight… [Read more]
Rice has traditionally been the main-stay of the Japanese diet. Until the most recent times, many people ate only rice, vegetables and pickles with an occasional piece of fish, chicken or other meat. Since rice provided most of the calories and a good portion of the vitamins and protein required for sustenance, successful cultivation has… [Read more]
Since Japan is an island nation, transport by boat has always been important. The country’s rivers, however, are short and fast flowing, so an extensive inland waterway network has never been developed. Nevertheless, a limited river transport capacity was developed near the coastal regions where rivers were somewhat wider and quieter, particularly around Edo, Osaka,… [Read more]
The Nakasendo was considered an easier route than the Tokaido because it had fewer crossings over large rivers. Rivers in Japan are serious barriers to land transport because they are wide, not navigable and prone to sudden flash floods. Many a travelers’ tale, then, turns on mishaps at river crossings. In the Warring States period,… [Read more]
The great highways of the Edo period, such as the Tokaido and the Nakasendo, fell into relative decline after the Meiji Restoration of 1868. The ‘alternate residence’ system (sankin kotai) had been abolished a few years earlier, and the roads no longer had to support frequent daimyo processions. Furthermore, the imperial court moved to Tokyo… [Read more]
“Ronin” is the Japanese term for a masterless samurai and is written with the characters for ‘floating’ and ‘man’, i.e., a warrior adrift with no lord to serve nor stipend for income. During the late stages of the Warring States period and early years of the Edo period, many samurai were thrown out of work… [Read more]
Among the many images of the 1950s held by elderly Japanese people today are those of school-leavers boarding trains for the cities. This image is not just that of one family wishing farewell to a son or daughter, but of a whole village turning out to wave good-bye to a newly graduated middle school or… [Read more]
There is often an impression that although the Japanese have developed a strong sense of appreciation for their landscape, they appreciate a carefully cultivated garden more than the natural environment or a contemplative stroll in a park rather than a hike in the mountains. Perhaps the most popular rural sport is fishing. In a nation… [Read more]
“Sake”, which is pronounced with an ‘a’ as in father and an ‘e’ as in egg, is both a generic term for alcohol and for wine made from rice. The wine was the main alcoholic beverage in Japan until Western wines, beer and distilled liquor were introduced mainly in the 19th century. The alternative to… [Read more]
Alternate residence duty, or sankin kotai, was a system developed in the Warring States period and perfected by the Tokugawa shogunate. In essence, the system demanded simply that daimyo reside in the Tokugawa castle at Edo for periods of time, alternating with residence at the daimyo’s own castle. When a daimyo was not residing in… [Read more]
Alternate residence duty, or sankin kotai, was a system developed in the Warring States period and perfected by the Tokugawa shogunate. In essence, the system demanded simply that daimyo reside in the Tokugawa castle at Edo for periods of time, alternating with residence at the daimyo’s own castle. When a daimyo was not residing in… [Read more]
The climate of Japan is influenced by its position on the eastern edge of the Eurasian land mass (thus Japan is subject to the effects of both continental and maritime winds), by its latitudinal position (in the temperate zone), and by the annual movement, north and south, of a series of fronts separating different air… [Read more]
Shinkansen is the ‘New Trunk Line’ or ‘bullet train’ which was first built in 1964 for the Tokyo Olympics. It cut the time for inter-city trips between Tokyo, Nagoya, Kyoto, Osaka and Kobe in half. Since 1964, the system has been extended to both the northern and southern islands and additional routes are planned throughout… [Read more]
Shinto is Japan’s native religion. It is often called ‘The Way of the Gods’ because it is written with two Chinese characters which can be so translated. Shinto often seems to be a confusing amalgam of beliefs because it combines a huge variety of local traditions with a more tightly defined body of beliefs important… [Read more]
A shogunate was a style of Japanese government which gained its name from its head, the shogun. The full title of the shogun was “Seii Taishogun” or ‘Barbarian Subduing Generalissimo’. Shogunates were fundamentally governments whose control was limited to military affairs, although the right to govern often extended into social and economic matters only remotely… [Read more]
Like all major urban areas in the world, Japanese cities have seen massive suburban expansion in recent decades. The nature of suburban development, however, has been significantly different from that in most other countries. Many Japanese suburbs have developed around what were once small villages and towns rather than as divisions or subdivisions carved out… [Read more]
Sumo is a form of wrestling which goes back to the earliest historical records in Japanese history. In modern times, sumo has become a professional sport and is extremely popular, arenas for sumo are plentiful throughout Japan. Since it is native to Japan, it can perhaps better be described as the national sport rather than… [Read more]
A samurai in the Edo period, Takayama Hikokuro (1747-93) is more symbol than substance since few facts are known for sure about him. The statue of Takayama at the Sanjo Bridge in Kyoto is a testament to the impact he had, but there are many stories which surround his legend. One popular tale has it… [Read more]
Takeda Shingen (1521-1573) has been described as the prime example of the Warring States period daimyo in that he was tremendously successful in accomplishing limited, regional goals (expansion of his domains) by means of a series of temporary alliances which were quickly broken or reformed according to the need of the moment. Regional success was… [Read more]
Tateba or rest stops were located mid-way between post-towns. Typically, they were a small cluster of tea houses which were unofficially established by local people who took advantage of the needs of travelers who would stop for a rest and some refreshment before moving on to the next official post-town. Today, some tateba have disappeared… [Read more]
Tateba or rest stops were located mid-way between post-towns. Typically, they were a small cluster of tea houses which were unofficially established by local people who took advantage of the needs of travelers who would stop for a rest and some refreshment before moving on to the next official post-town. Today, some tateba have disappeared… [Read more]
Just before noon on the first of September, 1923, a huge earthquake struck Tokyo and the surrounding Kanto region. Registering 7.8 on the scale used by the Meteorological Agency of Japan, the initial tremor was followed by hundreds of small and one more large earthquake during the following days. They added to the worry and… [Read more]
Elections in the upper House of Councilors occur every three years when half the members have to stand for election. The 1992 election for the upper house had the potential for dramatic change, but it did not happen. In the previous election, the ruling Liberal-Democratic Party narrowly lost its majority in this House. This forced… [Read more]
Although only a small town, Ashita boasts the oldest surviving honjin on the Nakasendo. It has also been owned by the same family since its’ original construction in the late 16th century. Ashita honjin offers a unique opportunity to observe one story of the changing fortunes of the most important building in any post-town, from… [Read more]
On the fateful night of October 20, 1600, Ishida Mitsunari – commander of the ‘Army of the West’, made the decision to withdraw his forces from Ogaki castle to defend the narrow pass at Sekigahara against the advancing ‘Army of the East’. The twelve mile march took the bulk of his army directly west to… [Read more]
Boys’ festival falls on May 5 and is officially designated as Children’s Day with due respect to prohibitions against sexual discrimination (since 1948). During the ten or so days surrounding the day, it is customary for families with male children to set up a pole topped by decorations. On the pole are hoisted a streamer… [Read more]
Most accounts date the origins of a national system of highways to 702AD: the year of the Taiho Code. Among other things, the Taiho reforms formalized a system of national administration (known as the “Ritsuryo system”), based on a division of the country into seven major regions, or ‘circuits’, and an additional one incorporating the… [Read more]
During the 7th century a centralized political state gradually emerged, providing the foundations for a unified Japan under the direct control of the emperor. After a number of imperial palaces had been built, then later dismantled, at various sites near modern-day Nara and Osaka the first imperial and administrative capital was built at Fujiwara at… [Read more]
On the map below, the blue lines are the Nakasendo highway, the Tokaido highway and the Koshu-kaido or Koshu highway. The Naksendo lies furthest to the north and runs from Kyoto in the west to Edo (modern Tokyo) in the east. The Tokaido does the same, but follows the Pacific coast most of the way…. [Read more]
There are five highways (“gokaido”) in Japan which were formally established during the Edo period as the official routes which the daimyo should follow on sankin kotai processions. All of them terminated at Nihonbashi in the center of Edo. They are the: * Tokaido, which runs from Kyoto to Edo following the Pacific coast and coastal… [Read more]
Post-towns were spaced out along the old highways of Japan for the convenience of travelers. In the eyes of the Tokugawa government, ‘travelers’ were officials, daimyo and samurai who were moving around on business connected either with their administrative responsibilities or with the system of alternate attendance (sankin kotai). The term did not include individuals… [Read more]
Held on March 3, Girls’ Festival features a display of dolls representing the imperial court displayed on a platform with the emperor and empress at the top and lower ranked attendants or entertainers below. A meal with special foods and candies is also prepared for the occasion. The modern festival gained popularity in all classes… [Read more]
In many parts of the world today the main population concern is that there are too many people and not enough resources to support everyone. In Japan there is also worry that with a population in excess of 123 million, the number of people is too high for a resource-scarce country with little flat land… [Read more]
Trains came to Japan late and like many technological advances railways arrived after being well developed elsewhere. This allowed the Japanese to begin building in the 1870s with a good view of the technological choices they needed to make. Early railroads were constructed by the government which decided on a standard gauge; henceforth, the government’s… [Read more]
With the rise of the samurai class and the need to keep land holdings intact, inheritance tended toward inheritance by a single son during the centuries before the end of the Edo period. In the Edo period, Tokugawa Ieyasu established a ‘code’ which did not specify that the eldest son would inherit. In the early… [Read more]
Edo Period The Edo period economy has been hotly debated for years and views of it have radically changed. When the political system was perceived as an unchanging, authoritarian, conservative feudal one throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, the economy was supposed to be very much the same. That is to say, it was stifled by the oppressive… [Read more]
Like many Asian family systems, the Japanese family system was an extended family which included distant relatives as well as the dead. In the earliest times, and certainly with the influence of China, ancestor worship was a strong and vibrant belief which made deceased real, active members of the family. Noble families, and families of… [Read more]
The current emperor, the Emperor Heisei, it is claimed, has an ancestry with origins in the Japanese pantheon. Tradition further proclaims that it was the father of the Gods, Izanagi, who thrust his spear into the waters of the earth and so created the Japanese isles from the droplets thus formed. Though most Japanese today… [Read more]
The Japanese tourist has become a ubiquitous figure throughout the world. Typically, he or she is part of a travel group with a guide waving a small flag, moving the group at a rapid pace through the day’s schedule. The tourist is heavily slung with cameras, video recorders, and perhaps a tape recorder to catch… [Read more]
Kura are a distinctive feature of house architecture throughout Japan and are seen in both rural and urban areas. The wooden structure of most houses is very prone to fire, but kura, separated from the main house, offered storage and protection for valuables. Kura have thick, mud walls, heavy, fire-proof windows and walls, and are… [Read more]
The Meiji constitution was promulgated by the emperor in 1889 and was replaced by the present constitution which was promulgated in November 1946 and put into action in May 1947. The Meiji constitution was flexible enough to permit considerable change; it left ambiguous the relationship between several major institutions of government and was long criticized… [Read more]
In the , the definition of a daimyo was a lord with an assessed tax income of 10,000 koku (1 koku equals about 5 US bushels) from rice land. Sometimes, the lesser daimyo were called shomyo, changing the character for big (dai) with the character for small (sho). They were, of course, military men who… [Read more]
The novel in Japan is both very old and completely modern. Novels in a nearly modern sense were being written in the 10th and 11th century. The most famous novel from this era is The Tale of Genji (Genji Monogatari) written by Murasaki Shikibu, a lady at the imperial court. Genji provides the reader with… [Read more]
Although closely akin to their Asian neighbors in both physical appearance and cultural background, many Japanese today maintain a strong belief in the unique identity of the Japanese race. Perhaps the strongest argument in support of this notion is the fact that the Japanese language (excluding imported words – mainly from China) has no close… [Read more]
The battle at Sekigahara in 1600 is seen as the last step in a centuries long process of political unification made remarkable by the degree of warfare. This was the Warring States period. The outcome of the battle was a definition of political relationships which were maintained during two and a half centuries of peace, stability, and… [Read more]
The Japanese political system was reformed by the Allied Occupation after 1945 in ways that were intended to democratize the country by removing impediments to democracy and by imposing some new institutions. At the top on the national level, the emperor is now a ceremonial institution, much like the British monarchy. The institution still has,… [Read more]
The Japanese political structure was reformed by the Allied Occupation after 1945 in ways that were intended to democratize the country by removing impediments to democracy and by imposing some new institutions. At the top on the national level, the emperor is now a ceremonial institution, much like the British monarchy. The institution still has,… [Read more]
The railroad in Japan is the focus of a great deal of romanticism. Children can frequently be found taking snap shots of their favorite trains, especially the rare ones, while adults travel further afield to do the same or simply to ride the rails in the more inaccessible parts of the train system. Much of… [Read more]
The Shinkansen is commonly known outside Japan as the ‘bullet train’ but the word actually means ‘new trunk line’. It is a high-speed passenger train system which now stretches from the southern island of Kyushu to the main island of Honshu with Fukuoka, Hiroshima, Osaka, Kyoto and Tokyo connected. A new line stretches north from… [Read more]
Hikone castle is one of only twelve in Japan with its original keep still intact. It is perhaps better known, however, as the home of the Ii – one of the most famous samurai families in Japan. Ii Naomasa, the founder of the line, was a native of present-day Shizuoka prefecture and a close ally… [Read more]
Princess Kazunomiya was the sister of Emperor Komei (reigned 1846-67) and was married to the 14th Tokugawa shogun, Iemochi, in 1862. The marriage was a political device intended to bring the imperial court and the Tokugawa shogunate into harmony, even though the princess, then aged 16, was already betrothed to someone else within the imperial… [Read more]
Among the soldiers forming ranks at the battlefield of Sekigahara as dawn broke on the morning of October 21, 1600, there were few who could doubt that a decisive battle here would mark the end of decades of civil strife and that, at the end of the day, a new shogun with power throughout all… [Read more]
The provision of lodging for high-ranking travelers was obligatory at most post-towns, and nearly all had at least one honjin (chief inn) and waki-honjin (assistant chief inn) for such people to rest. Ordinary travelers could also stay here, provided they were prepared to pay the higher fees and no higher ranking person was already expected…. [Read more]
The University of Tokyo is considered the best university in Japan although Kyoto University runs a close second. Commonly called Todai which is short for Tokyo daigaku, the institution has always had a privileged place in the educational system. In this century, the university-level system evolved into seven national universities before 1945, all equal in… [Read more]
The Warring States period (Sengoku jidai) lasted for the century from 1467 to 1567 although the wars and confusion of the age were not finally ended until the creation of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1603. The name is drawn from a similar period of civil war in China. It saw the breakdown of central authority,… [Read more]
The sword was the preferred weapon of the samurai as well as the warrior’s symbol of office in the Edo period. All other classes of people were prohibited from bearing any arms. During the Edo period, the social position of the samurai class was ideologically affirmed by the use of Confucian social philosophy under which… [Read more]
Yakuza are criminals who are organized into criminal organizations somewhat like the Mafia in the US and Italy. For many decades, the yakuza were a relatively minor type of criminal, but in recent decades, they have become more of a problem. Until the early 1960s yakuza concentrated on gambling, especially pachinko, and the entertainment industry… [Read more]
Toge (mountain passes) are a major preoccupation along the Nakasendo because they presented significant obstacles to travelers in the feudal period. Although they are generally not so steep that they prevent movement, they did challenge a traveler and create an impression. Passes like Torii-toge, for example, ran through countryside which is isolated even today. Edo… [Read more]
The toiya (alternatively pronounced tonya) was the officially designated person in charge of porters and the shipment of baggage and other goods. In a sense he was the ‘quartermaster-general’ assigned to each post-town. In terms of status he was second in importance to the honjin, and may have, on occasion, served as village headman. Very… [Read more]
The Tokugawa political system was perhaps the most complex feudal system ever developed. It was similar to the European feudal system (pope, emperor or king, feudal barons, and retainers in Europe compared to emperor, the shogun, the daimyo, and samurai retainers in Japan), but it was also very bureaucratic, an attribute not associated with European… [Read more]
Easily the dominant metropolitan area in Japan, Tokyo is also, very arguably, the leading city of the world. Strictly speaking, however, there is no such place as Tokyo City. The area that might be referred to as ‘downtown Tokyo’, near Tokyo Station and the Imperial Palace, is but just a small part of Tokyo prefecture…. [Read more]
Shimazaki Toson (1872-1943) is one of many literary figures with connections to the Nakasendo, but Toson is the one with the closest and longest association. Toson was born and raised in Magome and he wrote about Magome, Kiso-Fukushima (where he had relatives by marriage), and the Nakasendo at length in his autobiographical novels. Toson was… [Read more]
Although there are sharp differences between houses from various regions of Japan in terms of roof shape and roofing material, for example, many features are common. In general, all houses contain tatami (thick straw mats) for flooring. The size of the mats is standard so the layout of all rooms conforms to set sizes: 3… [Read more]
Finding one’s way along the highways of old Japan was not difficult. The distance between post-towns was usually just a few miles, and the road was marked by namiki (trees lining the highway) and the occasional stone signpost. Ichirizuka marked off exactly how far had been traveled. Nevertheless, as with today’s traveler, most people preferred… [Read more]
The average Japanese student entering university will have just completed ‘examination hell’. University entrance exams are rigorous and demand years, not weeks or months, of hard study. Many students fail their exams the first time and choose to spend a year or more studying at private cramming schools in hope of passing the exams next… [Read more]
Only about 16% of Japan’s land is considered suitable for farming. This includes a considerable portion which is too steep to terrace for rice or other flat land crops which have a high yield and, usually, a high economic return. This land, however, is crucially important to agriculture. Many crops are suitable only to upland farming since… [Read more]
In the Edo period, urban renewal was accomplished on a regular basis as a result of fire – a major hazard which frequently swept through parts of the large cities and devastated smaller towns. Edo took particular pride in the frequency of fires and the speed with which the city recovered from them. Merchants kept… [Read more]
It may seem odd to refer to Tokyo as a village. It has, after all, a population of about 8 million within the narrow definition of the city and some 30 million within commuting distance from the city center. Yet it is a village in the sense that each area of the city is very much like a… [Read more]
Volcanoes are common in Japan and are found along and to the west of a line running approximately down the middle of the main island of Honshu, the southern island of Kyushu, and the northern island of Hokkaido. They result from the friction of tectonic plates as the Pacific Plate bends and passes under the… [Read more]
Waki-honjin (‘assistant principal inns’) were similar to honjin except that they formed the second tier of inns in post-towns in terms of quality, size, and prestige. Like the honjin, waki-honjin were open primarily to daimyo and other travelers of high status. If the principal inn was occupied, the waki-honjin took in the next highest ranking… [Read more]
Japan, like all industrial nations, has experienced more and more difficulty disposing of waste products. The production of trash for each person rose from 1.75 pounds per day in 1977 to nearly 2 pounds in 1987 while the total output in Japan rose from around 90,000 tons to 108,500 tons per day in the same… [Read more]
It is virtually impossible not to find Western influences in Japan. Walk along the Nakasendo and within a mile or two the traveler will pass a roadside shrine no bigger than a doll house. Somebody will have left off a small bunch of flowers, perhaps some wild flowers, perhaps some weed flowers, carefully placed in… [Read more]
The Nakasendo may have been a road through the mountains and half as wide as the Tokaido which followed the flatter coastal areas, but it was very heavily traveled in the Edo period. The primary reason for the highway system through Japan was to provide the Tokugawa shogunate with the communication network it required to… [Read more]
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